Monday, September 30, 2019

Philippine Traditions: The Greatest Heritage

The Philippines has vast practices, traditions, and cultures. They existed a hundred years ago or may be thousands but they are still practiced up to now. It is like a legacy which is passed on from generation to generation. Usually, it is the old folks who relate these traditions over and over again. On my Grandma’s burial, her valued possessions are also buried in her grave. I asked my Mama why they have to do that and she simply answered, â€Å"So that she can bring it with her as she leaves us†. Well, we all know that a dead person cannot do that. The truth is, those things will only decay in there but to the Filipinos, it has a great significance and we can never question that. Another Filipino heritage which is highly valued in wedding custom is the â€Å"Pamamanhikan†. It is where the would-be groom with his parents goes to the house of the would-be bride to seek the blessing of her parents. It is also in this point when both parties formally set plans for the upcoming wedding. This symbolizes honor and respect to the parents of the couples. There are also certain Filipino habits that foreigners find them overwhelming. For example, when a visitor comes in, the family serves every delicacy and every mouth-watering Filipino cuisine that they can so as to please the visitor. He’ll be attended to the most comfortable room available and all his needs are served with delight and a warm smile. No wonder, Filipinos are known for their hospitality.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

How duration affects the rate of electrolysis in a Voltaic Cell Essay

Design and Conduct an experiment to investigate the effect of ONE FACTOR on redox reactions. Introduction:- The two main components of redox reactions are reduction and oxidation. Reduction is a gain in electrons and the decrease in oxidation number whereas oxidation is the loss of electrons and the increase in oxidation number. Voltaic cells, also known as galvanic cells generate their own electricity. The redox reaction in a Voltaic cell is a spontaneous reaction. For this reason, voltaic cells are commonly used as batteries. Voltaic cell reactions supply energy which is used to perform work. The energy is harnessed by situating the oxidation and reduction reactions in separate containers, joined by an apparatus (known as the salt bridge which primarily completes a circuit and maintains electrical neutrality) that allows electrons to flow. The functions of a voltaic cell are quite simple. There happens to be an anode and a cathode. The positive ions go the negative electrode (anode) whereas the negative ions go to the positive electrode (cathode). Electrons always flow from the anode (where oxidation takes place) to the cathode (where reduction takes place). Electrons flow across wires whereas ions flow across the electrolyte and the salt bridge. Aim:- The objective of this experiment is to see how the time affects the mass of the zinc electrode (anode) and the copper electrode (cathode) in a voltaic cell. Variables:- Variable Type of variable How it will be controlled Time (s) Independent (The one you change) Values from 5 to 35 minutes will be used Mass of anode & cathode (g) Dependent (The one you measure) Electrodes will be measured after each time interval Current (A) Controlled Measure the current with the help on an ammeter Initial mass of cathode and anode (g) Controlled Weigh out the electrodes using top pan balance from the beginning of the experiment Charge on ion Controlled Use the same solution for all the trials. The charge on the copper ion should be 2+ since the copper 2+ is being converted to copper metal. The charge on the zinc ion should be 0 because Zn is being converted to Zn 2+ Concentration of electrolyte Controlled Use the same solution for all the trials. The solution primarily should be 1 mol dm-3 (just like standard conditions) Area of electrodes (cm2) Controlled Measure the electrodes to ensure they have the same dimensions (9Ãâ€"2.5cm). Use the same electrodes for all the trials. Volume of electrolyte (cm3) Controlled Use a measuring cylinder to measure out the electrolyte’s volume Atmosphere which we are working under Controlled Primarily we are working under standard room temperature of 298 K Apparatus:- * 1Ãâ€"22.5cm2 copper electrode * 1Ãâ€"22.5cm2 zinc electrode * 100cm3 1mol dm-3 Zinc sulphate solution * 100cm3 1mol dm-3 copper (II) sulphate solution * Filter paper (required to create a salt bridge) * 100cm3 of potassium nitrate solution (the spectator ion which I will require for creating the salt bridge which will complete the circuit and maintain electrical neutrality) * 2x200cm3 beakers * Stopwatch (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.01s) * 1x100cm3 measuring cylinder (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1.0cm3) * Voltmeter * 2 connecting wires * Top pan balance (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.01g) Method:- 1) Set up the voltaic cell. Use a measuring cylinder to measure out 100cm3 of copper sulphate solution. Pour it into the 200 cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ beaker. 2) Next do the same for zinc sulphate. Use a measuring cylinder to help measure out 100cm3 of zinc sulphate solution. Pour it into a different 200 cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ beaker. 3) Weigh the masses of the electrodes separately using a top pan balance. Record the initial masses. 4) Connect the wires to the outlets in the zinc and copper electrode. Place them in the corresponding outlets of the voltmeter. 5) After that we cut out some filter paper and dip that into our spectator ion (potassium nitrate) in order to build a salt bridge. The salt bridge will primarily complete the circuit, allow flow of ions and maintain electrical neutrality. The salt bridge will be placed in such a way that the ends of the salt bridge will be touching separate solutions of zinc sulphate and copper sulphate. The overall circuit should resemble the diagram in Figure.1. 6) Place the zinc electrode into the beaker with the zinc sulphate solution and the copper electrode into the beaker with the copper sulphate solution and at the same time, start the stopwatch. Keep the stopwatch running until 200 seconds elapse. *Note- we will be recording the time every 5 minutes because 1 or 2 minutes simply isn’t enough for the change to take place 7) Take the cathode out of the solution and measure its mass (remember, before doing so, shake it a couple of times in order to remove any moisture). Record the mass. Do the same for the zinc electrode 8) Place the electrodes into their respective solutions once again and start timing. Repeat steps 5 to 6 9) Repeat the same steps until we get mass readings for up to 60 minutes of experimenting. Data Collection and Processing Raw data:- – Initial mass of anode (zinc electrode): 31.29 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.01g – Initial mass of cathode (copper electrode): 32.05 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.01g Table 1 – Mass of anode and cathode obtained from different time intervals Duration of electrolysis (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.21s) Mass of anode (zinc electrode) (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.01g) Mass of cathode (copper electrode) (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.01g) 300.00 (5 minutes) 31.27 32.08 600.00 (10 minutes) 31.14 32.16 900.00 (15 minutes) 31.08 32.27 1200.00 (20 minutes) 31.00 32.42 1500.00 (25 minutes) 30.83 32.49 1800.00 (30 minutes) 30.61 32.80 2100.00 (35 minutes) 30.25 33.08 Qualitative observations:- – We can see that the copper is deposited at the cathode where the cathode begins to get more pink/ brownish colour. – Blue colour of copper sulphate solution begins to get paler. – Zinc electrode begins to corrode a bit. Most corrosion can be observed at 35 minutes time interval. Note* – Uncertainties: The average reaction time was à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.5s even though it did alter from interval to interval. Note that there is also a à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.01s time uncertainty in the stopwatch itself. The uncertainty for mass is inscribed on the top pan balance as well. Data Processing: We must now calculate the mass changes which have taken place due to experimenting with different time intervals. (Different time intervals would result in a different mass change) This can be calculated simply by doing the following: Mass change = final mass – initial mass Due note however that this formula can only be used for calculating the mass change taking place at the cathode (copper electrode where reduction takes place). This is because copper 2+ is being converted to copper metal and is being deposited at the cathode. Obviously this would result in a mass gain at the cathode. Therefore, it would be better for us to use the formula ‘Mass change = final mass – initial mass’ so that it gives us a positive value for the mass change taking place at the cathode. Example 1 Mass change = final mass – initial mass => 32.08 – 32.05 => 0.03g Example 2 Now to calculate the mass change taking place at the anode (zinc electrode), we use the following formula, Mass change = initial mass- final mass. In this case we use this formula because we know that the zinc is being oxidized to zinc 2+ leading the zinc electrode to corrode. This therefore results in a decrease in mass of the anode (zinc electrode). Thus, it would be better for us to use the formula ‘Mass change = initial mass – final mass’ so that it gives us a positive value for the mass change taking place at the anode. Mass change = initial mass – final mass = > 31.29 – 31.27 = > 0.02 Table 2 -Mass changes of anode and cathode for each time interval Time (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.21s) Mass change of Anode (Zinc electrode)(à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.01g) Mass change of cathode (copper electrode) (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.01g) 300.00 (5 minutes) 0.02 0.03 600.00 (10 minutes) 0.15 0.11 900.00 (15 minutes) 0.21 0.22 1200.00 (20 minutes) 0.29 0.37 1500.00 (25 minutes) 0.46 0.44 1800.00 (30 minutes) 0.68 0.75 2100.00 (35 minutes) 1.04 1.03 Graph 1:- Graph 2:- To derive the equation for the two separate reactions, the number of electrons gained or lost during the process has to be deduced. The mass change per minute can be deduced from the gradient. Therefore we first calculate the gradient of graph 1 (mass changes for zinc electrode). For calculating the gradient, find two points which perfectly fits in the grid. In this case, the points (0.04. 100) and (0.08, 200) Gradient= (Y2 – Y1) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (X2 – X1) = (0.08- 0.04) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (200 – 100) = (0.04) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (100) = 0.0004 Therefore, the gradient of the first graph is 0.0002. So the mass change per minute for the anode is 0.0004. Next, we calculate the gradient of graph 2 (mass changes for copper electrode). To find the gradient, we work with the points (0.20. 500) and (0.24, 700) Gradient= (Y2 – Y1) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (X2 – X1) = (700 – 500) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (0.24- 0.20) = (200) à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (0.04) = 0.0002 Therefore, the gradient of the first graph is 0.0002. So the mass change per minute for the cathode is 0.0002. The uncertainties also need to be propagated through the summation of the fractional uncertainties. Uncertainties regarding zinc electrode:- Fractional uncertainty of mass = absolute uncertainty à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ actual value = 0.01 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 0.02 = 0.500 Fractional uncertainty of time = absolute uncertainty à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ actual value = 0.21 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 300 = > 0.0007 = 0.001 Total uncertainty = 0.001 + 0.500 = 0.501 to 3 decimal places Therefore the rate of change is 0.004 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 0.501 g/s Table 3 – Rate of change for each time interval for anode (zinc electrode) Time (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.21s) Rate of change of anode (zinc electrode) (g/s) 60.00 0.004à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.501 120.00 0.004à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.067 180.00 0.004à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.048 240.00 0.004à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.035 300.00 0.004à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.022 360.00 0.004à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.015 420.00 0.004à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.001 To calculate the number of electrons in zinc electrode, the following equation may be used:- Number of electrons = molar mass à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ mass of electrode (mass of one of the samples) = 65.37 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 31.27 = 2.09 Therefore, this would be the half-equation which would occur at the cathode: Zn–> Zn2.09+ + 2.09e- Due to the loss in a bit more electrons compared to the theoretical formula, it would be a stronger reducing agent therefore the electrode potential would be lower (more negative) than that of the original value. Nevertheless, the electrode potential cannot be determined. Uncertainties regarding copper electrode:- Fractional uncertainty of mass = absolute uncertainty à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ actual value = 0.01 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 0.03 = 0.333 Fractional uncertainty of time = absolute uncertainty à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ actual value = 0.21 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 300 = > 0.0007 = 0.001 Total uncertainty = 0.001 + 0.333= 0.334 to 3 decimal places Therefore the rate of change is 0.002 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 0.334 g/s Table 3 – Rate of change for each time interval for cathode (copper electrode) Time (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.21s) Rate of change of cathode (copper electrode) (g/s) 60.00 0.002à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.334 120.00 0.002à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.091 180.00 0.002à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.046 240.00 0.002à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.027 300.00 0.002à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.023 360.00 0.002à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.013 420.00 0.002à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.010 To calculate the number of electrons in copper electrode, the following equation may be used:- Number of electrons = molar mass à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ mass of electrode (mass of one of the samples) = 65.50 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 32.08 = 2.04 Therefore, this would be the half-equation which would occur at the cathode: Cu2.04+ + 2.04e- –> Cu Due to the gain of a bit more electrons compared to the theoretical formula, it would be a slightly weaker oxidizing agent therefore the electrode potential would be slightly lower than that of the original value. Nevertheless, the electrode potential cannot be determined. Conclusion My results show that as the duration/ time intervals increase, the mass of the anode (zinc electrode) decreases and the mass of the cathode (copper electrode) increases. We can see that there is a strong positive correlation between the time it takes for both electrodes to change in masses. If the duration is longer, then more electrons flow from the zinc electrode to the copper electrode (anode to cathode) through the electrical wires, while ions flow through the salt bridge to complete. As we know, in a voltaic cell/ galvanic cell, oxidation occurs at the anode (negative electrode) where as reduction occurs at the cathode (positive electrode). Primarily, zinc is oxidized at the anode and converted to zinc 2+. This causes corrosion at the zinc electrode due to the metal being converted to ions thus the mass of the zinc electrode (anode) decreases. On the other hand, copper undergoes reduction at the cathode and the copper 2+ ions get converted to copper metal. This causes the copper metal to be deposited at the cathode thus leading to the copper electrode (cathode) to increase in mass as the duration is increased. The following anodic reaction takes place at the zinc electrode (this is the theoretical equation):- Zn (s) –> Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- However the equation we found experimentally is:- Zn–> Zn2.09+ + 2.09e- Hence, this suggests that since the former zinc sample has more electrons to lose, it is an even stronger oxidizing agent compared to the theoretical equation and is slightly higher in the electrochemical series than the latter zinc samples. According to the results that have been gathered, there is a positive correlation between the time it takes to electrolyse an aqueous solution and the rate of electrolysis. The rate of electrolysis was measured using the mass of cathode. If the duration of electrolysis is longer, then more electrons will flow through the circuit and more ions will flow from the anode to the cathode. Oxidation occurs at the anode whereas reduction occurs at the cathode. The cathode gains electrons therefore the mass decreases. The following reaction has taken place (although this is the theoretical equation): Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- –> Cu (s) However, the experimental equation is: Cu1.75+ + 1.75e- –> Cu Therefore this implies that since the former copper sample has more electrons to gain, it is a stronger oxidizing agent and it is lower in the electrochemical series than the latter copper sample. The value of the electrode potential hasn’t been calculated, however, the number of electrons is 25% off there that shows that there is a great difference between the literature value and the experimental value. According to the graph in the previous page, there is a very strong positive correlation between the mass change and duration of electrolysis as can be deduced from the high R squared value. The change in mass over a certain period of time is very gradual because of the size of the electrons. Although a lot of electrons are able to flow through the electrolyte, there is not such a drastic change. By looking at the graph, almost all the error bars for the points touch the line of best fit which means the data is fairly accurate. The theoretical mass of a copper electrode would be 31.75g. From the results that have been tabulated, the mass of a copper electrode is 36.21g. The percentage error can be calculated using the following formula: Percentage error = difference x 100 theoretical value = 4.46 x 100 31.75 = 14.04% This shows that although there is not such a big difference between the theoretical value and the experimental value. Evaluation Limitation Type of error Improvement The mass of the anode was not measured therefore the rate of electron transfer between the two electrodes could not be determined. This could have increased or decreased the mass of the cathode. Random Measure the mass of the anode The power pack has internal resistance therefore not all the current was emitted. This could have decreased the current, thus decreasing the number of electrons produced. Random Use a resistor to accurately measure the current The top pan balance had a zero offset error. This could have increased the mass of the cathode. Systematic Use the top pan balance with the 0.001 uncertainty to obtain more accurate values. a

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Angels Demons Chapter 6263

Suddenly someone grabbed him from behind. It was Vittoria. She was breathless and tugging at his arm. From the look of terror on her face, Langdon could only imagine one thing. She found a body. He felt an upswelling of dread. â€Å"Ah, your wife!† the docent exclaimed, clearly thrilled to have another guest. He motioned to her short pants and hiking boots. â€Å"Now you I can tell are American!† Vittoria’s eyes narrowed. â€Å"I’m Italian.† The guide’s smile dimmed. â€Å"Oh, dear.† â€Å"Robert,† Vittoria whispered, trying to turn her back on the guide. â€Å"Galileo’s Diagramma. I need to see it.† â€Å"Diagramma?† the docent said, wheedling back in. â€Å"My! You two certainly know your history! Unfortunately that document is not viewable. It is under secret preservation in the Vatican Arc – â€Å" â€Å"Could you excuse us?† Langdon said. He was confused by Vittoria’s panic. He took her aside and reached in his pocket, carefully extracting the Diagramma folio. â€Å"What’s going on?† â€Å"What’s the date on this thing?† Vittoria demanded, scanning the sheet. The docent was on them again, staring at the folio, mouth agape. â€Å"That’s not†¦ really†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Tourist reproduction,† Langdon quipped. â€Å"Thank you for your help. Please, my wife and I would like a moment alone.† The docent backed off, eyes never leaving the paper. â€Å"Date,† Vittoria repeated to Langdon. â€Å"When did Galileo publish†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Langdon pointed to the Roman numeral in the lower liner. â€Å"That’s the pub date. What’s going on?† Vittoria deciphered the number. â€Å"1639?† â€Å"Yes. What’s wrong?† Vittoria’s eyes filled with foreboding. â€Å"We’re in trouble, Robert. Big trouble. The dates don’t match.† â€Å"What dates don’t match?† â€Å"Raphael’s tomb. He wasn’t buried here until 1759. A century after Diagramma was published.† Langdon stared at her, trying to make sense of the words. â€Å"No,† he replied. â€Å"Raphael died in 1520, long before Diagramma.† â€Å"Yes, but he wasn’t buried here until much later.† Langdon was lost. â€Å"What are you talking about?† â€Å"I just read it. Raphael’s body was relocated to the Pantheon in 1758. It was part of some historic tribute to eminent Italians.† As the words settled in, Langdon felt like a rug had just been yanked out from under him. â€Å"When that poem was written,† Vittoria declared, â€Å"Raphael’s tomb was somewhere else. Back then, the Pantheon had nothing at all to do with Raphael!† Langdon could not breathe. â€Å"But that†¦ means†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Yes! It means we’re in the wrong place!† Langdon felt himself sway. Impossible†¦ I was certain†¦ Vittoria ran over and grabbed the docent, pulling him back. â€Å"Signore, excuse us. Where was Raphael’s body in the 1600s?† â€Å"Urb†¦ Urbino,† he stammered, now looking bewildered. â€Å"His birthplace.† â€Å"Impossible!† Langdon cursed to himself. â€Å"The Illuminati altars of science were here in Rome. I’m certain of it!† â€Å"Illuminati?† The docent gasped, looking again at the document in Langdon’s hand. â€Å"Who are you people?† Vittoria took charge. â€Å"We’re looking for something called Santi’s earthly tomb. In Rome. Can you tell us what that might be?† The docent looked unsettled. â€Å"This was Raphael’s only tomb in Rome.† Langdon tried to think, but his mind refused to engage. If Raphael’s tomb wasn’t in Rome in 1655, then what was the poem referring to? Santi’s earthly tomb with demon’s hole? What the hell is it? Think! â€Å"Was there another artist called Santi?† Vittoria asked. The docent shrugged. â€Å"Not that I know of.† â€Å"How about anyone famous at all? Maybe a scientist or a poet or an astronomer named Santi?† The docent now looked like he wanted to leave. â€Å"No, ma’am. The only Santi I’ve ever heard of is Raphael the architect.† â€Å"Architect?† Vittoria said. â€Å"I thought he was a painter!† â€Å"He was both, of course. They all were. Michelangelo, da Vinci, Raphael.† Langdon didn’t know whether it was the docent’s words or the ornate tombs around them that brought the revelation to mind, but it didn’t matter. The thought occurred. Santi was an architect. From there the progression of thoughts fell like dominoes. Renaissance architects lived for only two reasons – to glorify God with big churches, and to glorify dignitaries with lavish tombs. Santi’s tomb. Could it be? The images came faster now†¦ da Vinci’s Mona Lisa. Monet’s Water Lilies. Michelangelo’s David. Santi’s earthly tomb†¦ â€Å"Santi designed the tomb,† Langdon said. Vittoria turned. â€Å"What?† â€Å"It’s not a reference to where Raphael is buried, it’s referring to a tomb he designed.† â€Å"What are you talking about?† â€Å"I misunderstood the clue. It’s not Raphael’s burial site we’re looking for, it’s a tomb Raphael designed for someone else. I can’t believe I missed it. Half of the sculpting done in Renaissance and Baroque Rome was for the funeraries.† Langdon smiled with the revelation. â€Å"Raphael must have designed hundreds of tombs!† Vittoria did not look happy. â€Å"Hundreds?† Langdon’s smile faded. â€Å"Oh.† â€Å"Any of them earthly, professor?† Langdon felt suddenly inadequate. He knew embarrassingly little about Raphael’s work. Michelangelo he could have helped with, but Raphael’s work had never captivated him. Langdon could only name a couple of Raphael’s more famous tombs, but he wasn’t sure what they looked like. Apparently sensing Langdon’s stymie, Vittoria turned to the docent, who was now inching away. She grabbed his arm and reeled him in. â€Å"I need a tomb. Designed by Raphael. A tomb that could be considered earthly.† The docent now looked distressed. â€Å"A tomb of Raphael’s? I don’t know. He designed so many. And you probably would mean a chapel by Raphael, not a tomb. Architects always designed the chapels in conjunction with the tomb.† Langdon realized the man was right. â€Å"Are any of Raphael’s tombs or chapels considered earthly?† The man shrugged. â€Å"I’m sorry. I don’t know what you mean. Earthly really doesn’t describe anything I know of. I should be going.† Vittoria held his arm and read from the top line of the folio. â€Å"From Santi’s earthly tomb with demon’s hole. Does that mean anything to you?† â€Å"Not a thing.† Langdon looked up suddenly. He had momentarily forgotten the second part of the line. Demon’s hole? â€Å"Yes!† he said to the docent. â€Å"That’s it! Do any of Raphael’s chapels have an oculus in them?† The docent shook his head. â€Å"To my knowledge the Pantheon is unique.† He paused. â€Å"But†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"But what!† Vittoria and Langdon said in unison. Now the docent cocked his head, stepping toward them again. â€Å"A demon’s hole?† He muttered to himself and picked at his teeth. â€Å"Demon’s hole†¦ that is†¦ buco divolo?† Vittoria nodded. â€Å"Literally, yes.† The docent smiled faintly. â€Å"Now there’s a term I have not heard in a while. If I’m not mistaken, a buco divolo refers to an undercroft.† â€Å"An undercroft?† Langdon asked. â€Å"As in a crypt?† â€Å"Yes, but a specific kind of crypt. I believe a demon’s hole is an ancient term for a massive burial cavity located in a chapel†¦ underneath another tomb.† â€Å"An ossuary annex?† Langdon demanded, immediately recognizing what the man was describing. The docent looked impressed. â€Å"Yes! That is the term I was looking for!† Langdon considered it. Ossuary annexes were a cheap ecclesiastic fix to an awkward dilemma. When churches honored their most distinguished members with ornate tombs inside the sanctuary, surviving family members often demanded the family be buried together†¦ thus ensuring they too would have a coveted burial spot inside the church. However, if the church did not have space or funds to create tombs for an entire family, they sometimes dug an ossuary annex – a hole in the floor near the tomb where they buried the less worthy family members. The hole was then covered with the Renaissance equivalent of a manhole cover. Although convenient, the ossuary annex went out of style quickly because of the stench that often wafted up into the cathedral. Demon’s hole, Langdon thought. He had never heard the term. It seemed eerily fitting. Langdon’s heart was now pounding fiercely. From Santi’s earthly tomb with demon’s hole. There seemed to be only one question left to ask. â€Å"Did Raphael design any tombs that had one of these demon’s holes?† The docent scratched his head. â€Å"Actually. I’m sorry†¦ I can only think of one.† Only one? Langdon could not have dreamed of a better response. â€Å"Where!† Vittoria almost shouted. The docent eyed them strangely. â€Å"It’s called the Chigi Chapel. Tomb of Agostino Chigi and his brother, wealthy patrons of the arts and sciences.† â€Å"Sciences?† Langdon said, exchanging looks with Vittoria. â€Å"Where?† Vittoria asked again. The docent ignored the question, seeming enthusiastic again to be of service. â€Å"As for whether or not the tomb is earthly, I don’t know, but certainly it is†¦ shall we say differente.† â€Å"Different?† Langdon said. â€Å"How?† â€Å"Incoherent with the architecture. Raphael was only the architect. Some other sculptor did the interior adornments. I can’t remember who.† Langdon was now all ears. The anonymous Illuminati master, perhaps? â€Å"Whoever did the interior monuments lacked taste,† the docent said. â€Å"Dio mio! Atrocits! Who would want to be buried beneath piramides?† Langdon could scarcely believe his ears. â€Å"Pyramids? The chapel contains pyramids?† â€Å"I know,† the docent scoffed. â€Å"Terrible, isn’t it?† Vittoria grabbed the docent’s arm. â€Å"Signore, where is this Chigi Chapel?† â€Å"About a mile north. In the church of Santa Maria del Popolo.† Vittoria exhaled. â€Å"Thank you. Let’s – â€Å" â€Å"Hey,† the docent said, â€Å"I just thought of something. What a fool I am.† Vittoria stopped short. â€Å"Please don’t tell me you made a mistake.† He shook his head. â€Å"No, but it should have dawned on me earlier. The Chigi Chapel was not always known as the Chigi. It used to be called Capella della Terra.† â€Å"Chapel of the Land?† Langdon asked. â€Å"No,† Vittoria said, heading for the door. â€Å"Chapel of the Earth.† Vittoria Vetra whipped out her cell phone as she dashed into Piazza della Rotunda. â€Å"Commander Olivetti,† she said. â€Å"This is the wrong place!† Olivetti sounded bewildered. â€Å"Wrong? What do you mean?† â€Å"The first altar of science is at the Chigi Chapel!† â€Å"Where?† Now Olivetti sounded angry. â€Å"But Mr. Langdon said – â€Å" â€Å"Santa Maria del Popolo! One mile north. Get your men over there now! We’ve got four minutes!† â€Å"But my men are in position here! I can’t possibly – â€Å" â€Å"Move!† Vittoria snapped the phone shut. Behind her, Langdon emerged from the Pantheon, dazed. She grabbed his hand and pulled him toward the queue of seemingly driverless taxis waiting by the curb. She pounded on the hood of the first car in line. The sleeping driver bolted upright with a startled yelp. Vittoria yanked open the rear door and pushed Langdon inside. Then she jumped in behind him. â€Å"Santa Maria del Popolo,† she ordered. â€Å"Presto!† Looking delirious and half terrified, the driver hit the accelerator, peeling out down the street. 63 Gunther Glick had assumed control of the computer from Chinita Macri, who now stood hunched in the back of the cramped BBC van staring in confusion over Glick’s shoulder. â€Å"I told you,† Glick said, typing some more keys. â€Å"The British Tattler isn’t the only paper that runs stories on these guys.† Macri peered closer. Glick was right. The BBC database showed their distinguished network as having picked up and run six stories in the past ten years on the brotherhood called the Illuminati. Well, paint me purple, she thought. â€Å"Who are the journalists who ran the stories,† Macri asked. â€Å"Schlock jocks?† â€Å"BBC doesn’t hire schlock jocks.† â€Å"They hired you.† Glick scowled. â€Å"I don’t know why you’re such a skeptic. The Illuminati are well documented throughout history.† â€Å"So are witches, UFOs, and the Loch Ness Monster.† Glick read the list of stories. â€Å"You ever heard of a guy called Winston Churchill?† â€Å"Rings a bell.† â€Å"BBC did a historical a while back on Churchill’s life. Staunch Catholic by the way. Did you know that in 1920 Churchill published a statement condemning the Illuminati and warning Brits of a worldwide conspiracy against morality?† Macri was dubious. â€Å"Where did it run? In the British Tattler?† Glick smiled. â€Å"London Herald. February 8, 1920.† â€Å"No way.† â€Å"Feast your eyes.† Macri looked closer at the clip. London Herald. Feb. 8, 1920. I had no idea. â€Å"Well, Churchill was a paranoid.† â€Å"He wasn’t alone,† Glick said, reading further. â€Å"Looks like Woodrow Wilson gave three radio broadcasts in 1921 warning of growing Illuminati control over the U.S. banking system. You want a direct quote from the radio transcript?† â€Å"Not really.† Glick gave her one anyway. â€Å"He said, ‘There is a power so organized, so subtle, so complete, so pervasive, that none had better speak above their breath when they speak in condemnation of it.’ â€Å" â€Å"I’ve never heard anything about this.† â€Å"Maybe because in 1921 you were just a kid.† â€Å"Charming.† Macri took the jab in stride. She knew her years were showing. At forty-three, her bushy black curls were streaked with gray. She was too proud for dye. Her mom, a Southern Baptist, had taught Chinita contentedness and self-respect. When you’re a black woman, her mother said, ain’t no hiding what you are. Day you try, is the day you die. Stand tall, smile bright, and let ’em wonder what secret’s making you laugh. â€Å"Ever heard of Cecil Rhodes?† Glick asked. Macri looked up. â€Å"The British financier?† â€Å"Yeah. Founded the Rhodes Scholarships.† â€Å"Don’t tell me – â€Å" â€Å"Illuminatus.† â€Å"BS.† â€Å"BBC, actually. November 16, 1984.† â€Å"We wrote that Cecil Rhodes was Illuminati?† â€Å"Sure did. And according to our network, the Rhodes Scholarships were funds set up centuries ago to recruit the world’s brightest young minds into the Illuminati.† â€Å"That’s ridiculous! My uncle was a Rhodes Scholar!† Glick winked. â€Å"So was Bill Clinton.† Macri was getting mad now. She had never had tolerance for shoddy, alarmist reporting. Still, she knew enough about the BBC to know that every story they ran was carefully researched and confirmed. â€Å"Here’s one you’ll remember,† Glick said. â€Å"BBC, March 5, 1998. Parliament Committee Chair, Chris Mullin, required all members of British Parliament who were Masons to declare their affiliation.† Macri remembered it. The decree had eventually extended to include policemen and judges as well. â€Å"Why was it again?† Glick read. â€Å"†¦ concern that secret factions within the Masons exerted considerable control over political and financial systems.† â€Å"That’s right.† â€Å"Caused quite a bustle. The Masons in parliament were furious. Had a right to be. The vast majority turned out to be innocent men who joined the Masons for networking and charity work. They had no clue about the brotherhood’s past affiliations.† â€Å"Alleged affiliations.† â€Å"Whatever.† Glick scanned the articles. â€Å"Look at this stuff. Accounts tracing the Illuminati back to Galileo, the Guerenets of France, the Alumbrados of Spain. Even Karl Marx and the Russian Revolution.† â€Å"History has a way of rewriting itself.† â€Å"Fine, you want something current? Have a look at this. Here’s an Illuminati reference from a recent Wall Street Journal.† This caught Macri’s ear. â€Å"The Journal?† â€Å"Guess what the most popular Internet computer game in America is right now?† â€Å"Pin the tail on Pamela Anderson.† â€Å"Close. It’s called, Illuminati: New World Order.† Macri looked over his shoulder at the blurb. â€Å"Steve Jackson Games has a runaway hit†¦ a quasi-historical adventure in which an ancient satanic brotherhood from Bavaria sets out to take over the world. You can find them on-line at†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Macri looked up, feeling ill. â€Å"What do these Illuminati guys have against Christianity?† â€Å"Not just Christianity,† Glick said. â€Å"Religion in general.† Glick cocked his head and grinned. â€Å"Although from the phone call we just got, it appears they do have a special spot in their hearts for the Vatican.† â€Å"Oh, come on. You don’t really think that guy who called is who he claims to be, do you?† â€Å"A messenger of the Illuminati? Preparing to kill four cardinals?† Glick smiled. â€Å"I sure hope so.† Angels Demons Chapter 6263 Suddenly someone grabbed him from behind. It was Vittoria. She was breathless and tugging at his arm. From the look of terror on her face, Langdon could only imagine one thing. She found a body. He felt an upswelling of dread. â€Å"Ah, your wife!† the docent exclaimed, clearly thrilled to have another guest. He motioned to her short pants and hiking boots. â€Å"Now you I can tell are American!† Vittoria’s eyes narrowed. â€Å"I’m Italian.† The guide’s smile dimmed. â€Å"Oh, dear.† â€Å"Robert,† Vittoria whispered, trying to turn her back on the guide. â€Å"Galileo’s Diagramma. I need to see it.† â€Å"Diagramma?† the docent said, wheedling back in. â€Å"My! You two certainly know your history! Unfortunately that document is not viewable. It is under secret preservation in the Vatican Arc – â€Å" â€Å"Could you excuse us?† Langdon said. He was confused by Vittoria’s panic. He took her aside and reached in his pocket, carefully extracting the Diagramma folio. â€Å"What’s going on?† â€Å"What’s the date on this thing?† Vittoria demanded, scanning the sheet. The docent was on them again, staring at the folio, mouth agape. â€Å"That’s not†¦ really†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Tourist reproduction,† Langdon quipped. â€Å"Thank you for your help. Please, my wife and I would like a moment alone.† The docent backed off, eyes never leaving the paper. â€Å"Date,† Vittoria repeated to Langdon. â€Å"When did Galileo publish†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Langdon pointed to the Roman numeral in the lower liner. â€Å"That’s the pub date. What’s going on?† Vittoria deciphered the number. â€Å"1639?† â€Å"Yes. What’s wrong?† Vittoria’s eyes filled with foreboding. â€Å"We’re in trouble, Robert. Big trouble. The dates don’t match.† â€Å"What dates don’t match?† â€Å"Raphael’s tomb. He wasn’t buried here until 1759. A century after Diagramma was published.† Langdon stared at her, trying to make sense of the words. â€Å"No,† he replied. â€Å"Raphael died in 1520, long before Diagramma.† â€Å"Yes, but he wasn’t buried here until much later.† Langdon was lost. â€Å"What are you talking about?† â€Å"I just read it. Raphael’s body was relocated to the Pantheon in 1758. It was part of some historic tribute to eminent Italians.† As the words settled in, Langdon felt like a rug had just been yanked out from under him. â€Å"When that poem was written,† Vittoria declared, â€Å"Raphael’s tomb was somewhere else. Back then, the Pantheon had nothing at all to do with Raphael!† Langdon could not breathe. â€Å"But that†¦ means†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Yes! It means we’re in the wrong place!† Langdon felt himself sway. Impossible†¦ I was certain†¦ Vittoria ran over and grabbed the docent, pulling him back. â€Å"Signore, excuse us. Where was Raphael’s body in the 1600s?† â€Å"Urb†¦ Urbino,† he stammered, now looking bewildered. â€Å"His birthplace.† â€Å"Impossible!† Langdon cursed to himself. â€Å"The Illuminati altars of science were here in Rome. I’m certain of it!† â€Å"Illuminati?† The docent gasped, looking again at the document in Langdon’s hand. â€Å"Who are you people?† Vittoria took charge. â€Å"We’re looking for something called Santi’s earthly tomb. In Rome. Can you tell us what that might be?† The docent looked unsettled. â€Å"This was Raphael’s only tomb in Rome.† Langdon tried to think, but his mind refused to engage. If Raphael’s tomb wasn’t in Rome in 1655, then what was the poem referring to? Santi’s earthly tomb with demon’s hole? What the hell is it? Think! â€Å"Was there another artist called Santi?† Vittoria asked. The docent shrugged. â€Å"Not that I know of.† â€Å"How about anyone famous at all? Maybe a scientist or a poet or an astronomer named Santi?† The docent now looked like he wanted to leave. â€Å"No, ma’am. The only Santi I’ve ever heard of is Raphael the architect.† â€Å"Architect?† Vittoria said. â€Å"I thought he was a painter!† â€Å"He was both, of course. They all were. Michelangelo, da Vinci, Raphael.† Langdon didn’t know whether it was the docent’s words or the ornate tombs around them that brought the revelation to mind, but it didn’t matter. The thought occurred. Santi was an architect. From there the progression of thoughts fell like dominoes. Renaissance architects lived for only two reasons – to glorify God with big churches, and to glorify dignitaries with lavish tombs. Santi’s tomb. Could it be? The images came faster now†¦ da Vinci’s Mona Lisa. Monet’s Water Lilies. Michelangelo’s David. Santi’s earthly tomb†¦ â€Å"Santi designed the tomb,† Langdon said. Vittoria turned. â€Å"What?† â€Å"It’s not a reference to where Raphael is buried, it’s referring to a tomb he designed.† â€Å"What are you talking about?† â€Å"I misunderstood the clue. It’s not Raphael’s burial site we’re looking for, it’s a tomb Raphael designed for someone else. I can’t believe I missed it. Half of the sculpting done in Renaissance and Baroque Rome was for the funeraries.† Langdon smiled with the revelation. â€Å"Raphael must have designed hundreds of tombs!† Vittoria did not look happy. â€Å"Hundreds?† Langdon’s smile faded. â€Å"Oh.† â€Å"Any of them earthly, professor?† Langdon felt suddenly inadequate. He knew embarrassingly little about Raphael’s work. Michelangelo he could have helped with, but Raphael’s work had never captivated him. Langdon could only name a couple of Raphael’s more famous tombs, but he wasn’t sure what they looked like. Apparently sensing Langdon’s stymie, Vittoria turned to the docent, who was now inching away. She grabbed his arm and reeled him in. â€Å"I need a tomb. Designed by Raphael. A tomb that could be considered earthly.† The docent now looked distressed. â€Å"A tomb of Raphael’s? I don’t know. He designed so many. And you probably would mean a chapel by Raphael, not a tomb. Architects always designed the chapels in conjunction with the tomb.† Langdon realized the man was right. â€Å"Are any of Raphael’s tombs or chapels considered earthly?† The man shrugged. â€Å"I’m sorry. I don’t know what you mean. Earthly really doesn’t describe anything I know of. I should be going.† Vittoria held his arm and read from the top line of the folio. â€Å"From Santi’s earthly tomb with demon’s hole. Does that mean anything to you?† â€Å"Not a thing.† Langdon looked up suddenly. He had momentarily forgotten the second part of the line. Demon’s hole? â€Å"Yes!† he said to the docent. â€Å"That’s it! Do any of Raphael’s chapels have an oculus in them?† The docent shook his head. â€Å"To my knowledge the Pantheon is unique.† He paused. â€Å"But†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"But what!† Vittoria and Langdon said in unison. Now the docent cocked his head, stepping toward them again. â€Å"A demon’s hole?† He muttered to himself and picked at his teeth. â€Å"Demon’s hole†¦ that is†¦ buco divolo?† Vittoria nodded. â€Å"Literally, yes.† The docent smiled faintly. â€Å"Now there’s a term I have not heard in a while. If I’m not mistaken, a buco divolo refers to an undercroft.† â€Å"An undercroft?† Langdon asked. â€Å"As in a crypt?† â€Å"Yes, but a specific kind of crypt. I believe a demon’s hole is an ancient term for a massive burial cavity located in a chapel†¦ underneath another tomb.† â€Å"An ossuary annex?† Langdon demanded, immediately recognizing what the man was describing. The docent looked impressed. â€Å"Yes! That is the term I was looking for!† Langdon considered it. Ossuary annexes were a cheap ecclesiastic fix to an awkward dilemma. When churches honored their most distinguished members with ornate tombs inside the sanctuary, surviving family members often demanded the family be buried together†¦ thus ensuring they too would have a coveted burial spot inside the church. However, if the church did not have space or funds to create tombs for an entire family, they sometimes dug an ossuary annex – a hole in the floor near the tomb where they buried the less worthy family members. The hole was then covered with the Renaissance equivalent of a manhole cover. Although convenient, the ossuary annex went out of style quickly because of the stench that often wafted up into the cathedral. Demon’s hole, Langdon thought. He had never heard the term. It seemed eerily fitting. Langdon’s heart was now pounding fiercely. From Santi’s earthly tomb with demon’s hole. There seemed to be only one question left to ask. â€Å"Did Raphael design any tombs that had one of these demon’s holes?† The docent scratched his head. â€Å"Actually. I’m sorry†¦ I can only think of one.† Only one? Langdon could not have dreamed of a better response. â€Å"Where!† Vittoria almost shouted. The docent eyed them strangely. â€Å"It’s called the Chigi Chapel. Tomb of Agostino Chigi and his brother, wealthy patrons of the arts and sciences.† â€Å"Sciences?† Langdon said, exchanging looks with Vittoria. â€Å"Where?† Vittoria asked again. The docent ignored the question, seeming enthusiastic again to be of service. â€Å"As for whether or not the tomb is earthly, I don’t know, but certainly it is†¦ shall we say differente.† â€Å"Different?† Langdon said. â€Å"How?† â€Å"Incoherent with the architecture. Raphael was only the architect. Some other sculptor did the interior adornments. I can’t remember who.† Langdon was now all ears. The anonymous Illuminati master, perhaps? â€Å"Whoever did the interior monuments lacked taste,† the docent said. â€Å"Dio mio! Atrocits! Who would want to be buried beneath piramides?† Langdon could scarcely believe his ears. â€Å"Pyramids? The chapel contains pyramids?† â€Å"I know,† the docent scoffed. â€Å"Terrible, isn’t it?† Vittoria grabbed the docent’s arm. â€Å"Signore, where is this Chigi Chapel?† â€Å"About a mile north. In the church of Santa Maria del Popolo.† Vittoria exhaled. â€Å"Thank you. Let’s – â€Å" â€Å"Hey,† the docent said, â€Å"I just thought of something. What a fool I am.† Vittoria stopped short. â€Å"Please don’t tell me you made a mistake.† He shook his head. â€Å"No, but it should have dawned on me earlier. The Chigi Chapel was not always known as the Chigi. It used to be called Capella della Terra.† â€Å"Chapel of the Land?† Langdon asked. â€Å"No,† Vittoria said, heading for the door. â€Å"Chapel of the Earth.† Vittoria Vetra whipped out her cell phone as she dashed into Piazza della Rotunda. â€Å"Commander Olivetti,† she said. â€Å"This is the wrong place!† Olivetti sounded bewildered. â€Å"Wrong? What do you mean?† â€Å"The first altar of science is at the Chigi Chapel!† â€Å"Where?† Now Olivetti sounded angry. â€Å"But Mr. Langdon said – â€Å" â€Å"Santa Maria del Popolo! One mile north. Get your men over there now! We’ve got four minutes!† â€Å"But my men are in position here! I can’t possibly – â€Å" â€Å"Move!† Vittoria snapped the phone shut. Behind her, Langdon emerged from the Pantheon, dazed. She grabbed his hand and pulled him toward the queue of seemingly driverless taxis waiting by the curb. She pounded on the hood of the first car in line. The sleeping driver bolted upright with a startled yelp. Vittoria yanked open the rear door and pushed Langdon inside. Then she jumped in behind him. â€Å"Santa Maria del Popolo,† she ordered. â€Å"Presto!† Looking delirious and half terrified, the driver hit the accelerator, peeling out down the street. 63 Gunther Glick had assumed control of the computer from Chinita Macri, who now stood hunched in the back of the cramped BBC van staring in confusion over Glick’s shoulder. â€Å"I told you,† Glick said, typing some more keys. â€Å"The British Tattler isn’t the only paper that runs stories on these guys.† Macri peered closer. Glick was right. The BBC database showed their distinguished network as having picked up and run six stories in the past ten years on the brotherhood called the Illuminati. Well, paint me purple, she thought. â€Å"Who are the journalists who ran the stories,† Macri asked. â€Å"Schlock jocks?† â€Å"BBC doesn’t hire schlock jocks.† â€Å"They hired you.† Glick scowled. â€Å"I don’t know why you’re such a skeptic. The Illuminati are well documented throughout history.† â€Å"So are witches, UFOs, and the Loch Ness Monster.† Glick read the list of stories. â€Å"You ever heard of a guy called Winston Churchill?† â€Å"Rings a bell.† â€Å"BBC did a historical a while back on Churchill’s life. Staunch Catholic by the way. Did you know that in 1920 Churchill published a statement condemning the Illuminati and warning Brits of a worldwide conspiracy against morality?† Macri was dubious. â€Å"Where did it run? In the British Tattler?† Glick smiled. â€Å"London Herald. February 8, 1920.† â€Å"No way.† â€Å"Feast your eyes.† Macri looked closer at the clip. London Herald. Feb. 8, 1920. I had no idea. â€Å"Well, Churchill was a paranoid.† â€Å"He wasn’t alone,† Glick said, reading further. â€Å"Looks like Woodrow Wilson gave three radio broadcasts in 1921 warning of growing Illuminati control over the U.S. banking system. You want a direct quote from the radio transcript?† â€Å"Not really.† Glick gave her one anyway. â€Å"He said, ‘There is a power so organized, so subtle, so complete, so pervasive, that none had better speak above their breath when they speak in condemnation of it.’ â€Å" â€Å"I’ve never heard anything about this.† â€Å"Maybe because in 1921 you were just a kid.† â€Å"Charming.† Macri took the jab in stride. She knew her years were showing. At forty-three, her bushy black curls were streaked with gray. She was too proud for dye. Her mom, a Southern Baptist, had taught Chinita contentedness and self-respect. When you’re a black woman, her mother said, ain’t no hiding what you are. Day you try, is the day you die. Stand tall, smile bright, and let ’em wonder what secret’s making you laugh. â€Å"Ever heard of Cecil Rhodes?† Glick asked. Macri looked up. â€Å"The British financier?† â€Å"Yeah. Founded the Rhodes Scholarships.† â€Å"Don’t tell me – â€Å" â€Å"Illuminatus.† â€Å"BS.† â€Å"BBC, actually. November 16, 1984.† â€Å"We wrote that Cecil Rhodes was Illuminati?† â€Å"Sure did. And according to our network, the Rhodes Scholarships were funds set up centuries ago to recruit the world’s brightest young minds into the Illuminati.† â€Å"That’s ridiculous! My uncle was a Rhodes Scholar!† Glick winked. â€Å"So was Bill Clinton.† Macri was getting mad now. She had never had tolerance for shoddy, alarmist reporting. Still, she knew enough about the BBC to know that every story they ran was carefully researched and confirmed. â€Å"Here’s one you’ll remember,† Glick said. â€Å"BBC, March 5, 1998. Parliament Committee Chair, Chris Mullin, required all members of British Parliament who were Masons to declare their affiliation.† Macri remembered it. The decree had eventually extended to include policemen and judges as well. â€Å"Why was it again?† Glick read. â€Å"†¦ concern that secret factions within the Masons exerted considerable control over political and financial systems.† â€Å"That’s right.† â€Å"Caused quite a bustle. The Masons in parliament were furious. Had a right to be. The vast majority turned out to be innocent men who joined the Masons for networking and charity work. They had no clue about the brotherhood’s past affiliations.† â€Å"Alleged affiliations.† â€Å"Whatever.† Glick scanned the articles. â€Å"Look at this stuff. Accounts tracing the Illuminati back to Galileo, the Guerenets of France, the Alumbrados of Spain. Even Karl Marx and the Russian Revolution.† â€Å"History has a way of rewriting itself.† â€Å"Fine, you want something current? Have a look at this. Here’s an Illuminati reference from a recent Wall Street Journal.† This caught Macri’s ear. â€Å"The Journal?† â€Å"Guess what the most popular Internet computer game in America is right now?† â€Å"Pin the tail on Pamela Anderson.† â€Å"Close. It’s called, Illuminati: New World Order.† Macri looked over his shoulder at the blurb. â€Å"Steve Jackson Games has a runaway hit†¦ a quasi-historical adventure in which an ancient satanic brotherhood from Bavaria sets out to take over the world. You can find them on-line at†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Macri looked up, feeling ill. â€Å"What do these Illuminati guys have against Christianity?† â€Å"Not just Christianity,† Glick said. â€Å"Religion in general.† Glick cocked his head and grinned. â€Å"Although from the phone call we just got, it appears they do have a special spot in their hearts for the Vatican.† â€Å"Oh, come on. You don’t really think that guy who called is who he claims to be, do you?† â€Å"A messenger of the Illuminati? Preparing to kill four cardinals?† Glick smiled. â€Å"I sure hope so.†

Friday, September 27, 2019

The contemporary history of United States Essay

The contemporary history of United States - Essay Example Also, they tell us that why don't we know the answer. Besides, their works contains the message that the U.S citizens have to do something urgently to save our two-century old democracy. Both Kinzer and Johnson trace the roots of current crisis back to the much celebrated 'little splendid war': in which America declared war on Spain in the name of liberating the colonialized nations of Latin America. The oppressed nations got liberated from Spanish imperial rule as the result of the Spanish-American war which broke out in 1868, were soon became U.S protectorates in order to protect the interests of American businesspersons in those lands. Kinzer points out that 'the invasion of Iraq in 2003 was the culmination of a 110- year period during which Americans overthrew fourteen governments that displeased them for various ideological, political, and economic reasons' (Kinzer, 2007, p.1). In our country, people commonly identify us as citizens of an innocent nation which stands only for virtues. The prevailing attitude is that whatever we do is for good. Behind all this fashionable rhetoric, there lies the ugly side of the truth. The story of American interventions in foreign countries that were supposed to be for prompting democratic culture and liberal values is just farce. The very beginning of America's regime change policy with the overthrow of Hawaiian monarchy was founded on lies. The then governing class in the U.S propagated the view that it is for the sakes of the democratic rights of Hawaiian people. In reality, when the Queen Liliuokalani gave voting rights to all the people without considering ownership of pro perty, the U.S had to intervene to protect the interests of large planters and other riches. Kinzer has an altogether different take on American history from the ideological state apparatus that nourishes the official view at the expense of truth. He convincingly argues that the overthrow of Jose Santos Zelaya, the president of Nicaragua in 1909 was with the direct knowledge of then president of U.S, William Howard Taft.Importantly, Kinzer also notes that 'the United States rose to power at the same time multinational corporations were emerging as a decisive force in world affairs' (Kinzer, 2007, p.4). It is a telling observation. Much of the American interventions was to pave easy way for exploitative activities of the multinational corporations and was simulated by the business elites who penetrated to public offices. Moreover, the democratic movement in our country that is composed of civic movement, trade unions and progressive political parties were not able to become blocs of counterbalance power against the tyrannical corporations. Besides, the hegemony of corporate ideas such as free enterprise, personal growth and crass individualism prevented the American public from being a democratizing force in effect. For the rest of the world, it was impossible even to imagine countering American corporate power. The corporations were 'the vanguard of American power, and defying them has become tantamount to defying the United States' (Kinzer, 2007, p.4). As corporations substantially increased their economic power, they started wielding

Thursday, September 26, 2019

HFA 4M0 Summative Assignment World Cuisine Investigation Lebanon Research Paper

HFA 4M0 Summative Assignment World Cuisine Investigation Lebanon - Research Paper Example The economy of the country is based on tourism, agriculture and the banking sectors, with a special parliamentary democracy system of government, referred to as confessionalism, which reserves the top ranks of the government to members of certain religious groups (Sean, 1997). There is a fair distribution of the administration and the governing system among the 18 major denominations of the country, to mitigate religious conflicts. The country is made up of interrelated cultures of a people, having a population that greatly differs in religion, ethnicity, and language, thus making this country one of the most diversified community (Harb, 2006). The population of this country is predicted to be well over four million people, with all males required to vote on a compulsory basis after attaining the age of 21 years, while women can vote after attaining this age, only that they must have obtained education (Collelo, 2009). The cultures of this country are mostly religious integrated, with a high level of hospitality amongst the residents. Considering that, the arable land in this country is small, then, the country highly depends on imported foods. The major crops grown in the country include cereals such as wheat, fruits and vegetable as well as figs and tob acco. Since the country comprises about 30% of cultivatable land, irrigation and rain fed system are depended for the growth of crops, though not much of the land is irrigated (Aida, 1998). The agricultural activity contributes a 13% of the country’s total annual Gross Domestic Product, employing close to 14% of the country’s population, with most of the production consumed locally and just a small percentage accounting for export to Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (Suad, 1986). Bread is a staple food in this country, which is served with almost every meal. Other foods acting as staple in this country include fruits, vegetables, rice,

APA Annotation for 4 articles Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

APA Annotation for 4 articles - Research Paper Example The paper succeeds in demonstrating that the perception of Muslim women that is portrayed in the book undermines the need to address the patriarchal societies that make it difficult for the girl child to be empowered. Instead, it shows that the background of the author and financial motivations mostly drives the message. The paper is useful when evaluating the situation of Arabic Muslim girls in the United States of America. Although the paper serves as a strong critique of the book, it has failed to appreciate the truths in the novel. The Breadwinner has succeeded in contributing to the conversation about the role of religion in undermining the faith for equality in the society. The Arabic students in the country would identify with the argument made in the paper. In particular, they will identify with the fact that the institutional structure and culture where they learn often undermines the role of women. Moreover, they will agree that the ‘girl in need of salvation’ narrative that is present in the book undermines their quest for recognition in the society. , Erick and Zaidi focus on how the media covered the murder of a young Muslim girl in Mississauga, Ontario. The incident occurred in December 7. In particular, they have focused on how the media shifted the conversation from concerns over a tragic family event to a larger topic, the clash of civilizations. The authors also focused on tolerance and the negative effect that the term has on the society. The paper has highlighted the cultural implications involved in the debate over the hijab. Since Canada and America share many cultural similarities, the paper will be informative in shaping conversations on the topic in America. The paper highlights the ethical implications in the society. The authors have succeeded in highlighting the impact of an event in

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Casino Industry Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Casino Industry - Article Example The letters-to-the-editor column may support this with expressions of disappointments by long-time Las Vegas visitors about their business losing importance to gamers.The bad economy may lead to new international jurisdictions, Mr. Loveman opined. To care for an established customer rather than to attract a new one is also one less expensive option. Mr. T.J. Matthews, International Game Technology Chairman and CEO, said that adapting new slot technology is a resultant option for his company after the failure of several casino projects. From firs-time reading of this article, it seems that the author has written it very hurriedly. The language is poor and with loaded sentences and word use. Though clear, the author's viewpoint remains obscure due to the poor quality of language. For instances, he write - "The faster it adapts to the new economic climate -- and the end of "who cares" easy credit -- the better" and "Looser credit in Bucharest We'll see." The text is full of rhetoric devices; and he has used much material spoken by other people, mainly Mr. Loveman. This is apparent with the word uses of "drunken sailors", "arms race"; along with his own word use like "state of the Industry" and "grass is greener." The use of quotations is widely seen, sometimes mixed with own style; Mr. Loveman and Mr. Matthew have been quoted largely. The overall strength of argument is not powerful. There are evidences of obstacles to critical thinking. The author talks about the emergence of new international jurisdiction opposed to the traditional values through the idiom "grass is greener." Sometimes, the use of taunting language is observed; for example "Old values -- including the avoidance of crippling debt loads -- now reassert themselves." The structure of the article is very weak with an abrupt conclusion with "Imagine that." Despite being in accordance with ideas of the quoted people, the central evidentiary claims by the authors seem imaginary. The thinking about new international jurisdiction seems plausible, and is, maybe, away from central reasoning of Mr. Loveman and Mr. Matthew. Part III: Another reason to worry and one more area detected by the current ongoing global economic crisis - the casino industry is on the target with the people worrying about its current status with future scenario. The world's largest casino company Harrah's EntertainmentInc. has come forward with the fact, stated by theChairman and CEO, Mr.Loveman, thatit is the "overindulgence" in money spending. Other executives of the top casino companies do seem agreeing with Mr. Loveman when they say this business is not goingto remain in a same manner for coming years; because casino owners are shifting the focus to other available properties. This is a natural human tendency needing no explanation. He opined that the industry requires a kind of acceptance to the notion that every project is not a good project keeping in mind a money figure such as $1 billion. As per him the competitors and other businesses along with Harrah's need to change the work style especially considering the financial matters with future professional perspective. He described the competition among the professionals as very tough which might have to deescalate. For financial matters he thinks about a significant change

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Language Crossing by B. Rampton Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Language Crossing by B. Rampton - Assignment Example According to the research findings, Rampton found that the speakers moved outside the language varieties they normally used and they briefly adapted codes which they didn’t have full and easy access to and that these appropriations of someone else’s language occurred in moments and activities when the world of daily life known in common with others and with others taken for granted. These findings have important implications for the ethnic process and the way social identities are negotiated in interactional code-switching. According to Cutler, Rampton’s book describes how groups of multiracial adolescents in a British working-class community mix their use of Creole, Panjabi, and Asian English. Rampton found that language crossing, in many instances, constitutes an anti-racist practice and is emblematic of young people striving to redefine their identities. The young people he studied used this mixed code to contest racial boundaries and assert a new â€Å"derac inated† ethnicity. Rampton also cited in his book the two types of code-switching namely situational and figurative. Situational code-switching is a standard speech that indicates a shift in a certain situation while figurative code-switching or double-voicing describes the way that utterances can be affected by a plurality of competing languages, discourse, and voices. Under figurative code-switching are metaphorical code-switching (uni-directional) and ironic code-switching (Vari-directional). Rampton defines metaphorical code-switching as a switching that introduces varieties of speech that is harder for the recipients to understand. It is uni-directional because speakers go along with the momentum of the second voice, though it generally retains an element of otherness which makes the appropriation conditional and introduces some reservation into the speakers’ use of it. On the other hand, ironic code-switching (Vari-directional) is a speech in which the speaker spe aks in someone else’s discourse, but introduce into that discourse a semantic intention directly opposed to the original one.

Monday, September 23, 2019

Management accountiong Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Management accountiong - Essay Example asure of two projects, this project favors the project with which has a higher present value though its likely to have a higher initial capital outlay, its not dependable when projects have different capital outlays. It's difficult to calculate as well as to understand and use in comparison with the pay back method or even the returns on the capital employed. Advantages of internal rate of return It considers the time value of money. It takes into account the total cash flows and outflows. It's easy to understand It's consistent with the overall objective of maximizing the shareholders wealth. Limitation of the internal rate of return It involves tedious calculation. It produces multiple rates which can be confusing. 3. ACTIVITY BASED COSTING This is a controlling and a planning tool which allocates costs to products in value chain analysis. It enables the overhead costs to be allocated to the respective product which incurred it rather than using the traditional methods where by the overhead costs were allocated as a percentage of the total overhead costs. It enables the managers to identify the products which incur higher costs therefore to charge them at a higher price or look for means to control these costs. 4. PEST ANALYSIS Political environment: These affect the operations of the business in UK; these laws encourage the existence of free markets where the market forces set the equilibrium hence there is fair competition. This encourages the supermarket to compete at a fair ground with its competitors. Economic environment: this affects the consumer consumption depending with the disposable income; this affects the way in which the supermarket will stock its products. Corporate taxes will also determine the manner in which it will price its products. If the...It enables the overhead costs to be allocated to the respective product which incurred it rather than using the traditional methods where by the overhead costs were allocated as a percentage of the total overhead costs. It enables the managers to identify the products which incur higher costs therefore to charge them at a higher price or look for means to control these costs. Political environment: These affect the operations of the business in UK; these laws encourage the existence of free markets where the market forces set the equilibrium hence there is fair competition. This encourages the supermarket to compete at a fair ground with its competitors. Economic environment: this affects the consumer consumption depending with the disposable income; this affects the way in which the supermarket will stock its products. Corporate taxes will also determine the manner in which it will price its products. If the taxes are very high then this will be reflected in the prices. Technology: the level of technology used in production affects the prices of the products of the supermarket, if the competitors are well off with better technology then are likely to have higher returns if the market prices are equal. Performance related pay is known to improve manager's production due to the fact that they have a budget against which controls them in using the firm resources.

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Learning Styles Essay Example for Free

Learning Styles Essay The reason for doing this report is to try and discover which is my best and worst way to learn and then to come up with a strategy for improving my ability to learn. The first thing that I need to do is research what different learning styles there is, after I have done this I can determine what are my preferred learning styles. Types of Learning Styles After doing some research I have discovered that there are four main ways of learning. For each of these four ways there is a continuum, this continuum determines which particular style somebody may prefer. The first continuum of learning is Active and Reflective, this style is to do with the way in which a person may go about his/her learning. Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it, discussing or applying it in a hands on way. Reflective learners prefer to think about it quietly first. The second continuum of learning is Sensing and Intuitive, this style is to do with the information that a person has to learn. Sensing learners often prefer to learn and memorise facts but intuitive learners prefer to learn around new ideas and concepts. The third continuum of learning is Visual and Verbal, this style is to do with the way in which the information is presented. Visual learners remember best what they see e. g. pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time lines, films, and demonstrations. Verbal learners get more out of words including written and spoken explanations. The fourth and final continuum of learning is Sequential and Global. This style is to do with the way in which learners put together the information they have been given. Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from the previous one. Global learners tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly without seeing connections, and then suddenly getting it. To be an effective learner you need to be able to learn in every single way depending on the way in which the information is presented or the environment in which you are learning etc. This is why the best learners have balanced learning styles and therefore can adapt the way they learn. My Learning Style Preferences are? To find out my learning style preferences I took part in a on-line test (http://www. crc4mse. org/ILS/self_test. html) which asks a series of questions and then gives you a score for each one of the four learning continuums. For three of the continuums I was biased towards one particular style, these are active, visual and global. This would indicate that I learn best when I can get involved and try things out. It also indicates that I absorb information best when it is presented visually in things such as diagrams, tables, graphs etc. furthermore, the test showed is that I learn best if I get an overview of the whole topic before I start concentrating on the smaller details. The final thing that this test points out is that Im neither sensing nor intuitive. Due to this I am able to learn the facts surrounding a subject but I am also able to grasp theories and ideas. I absolutely agree with the results of this test and would say it is a fair judgement on my learning preferences. My Learning Style Weaknesses are? As discussed before the best learners have a balanced learning style and therefore my greatest weakness is that I dont have the ability to adapt my learning style to all situations. Because of this I may miss out on some vital information because it isnt presented in a format that I am totally comfortable with. Even though I am a good learner when I learn actively I dont learn as well when there is nothing practical for me to take part in, in order to re-enforce the things that I have learnt. I also find it difficult to absorb information when it is not presented in a visual format. Another weakness of mine is that in some cases I need to have an overall understanding of a subject before I appreciate the smaller details. This is a weakness because sometimes it can over complicate a topic if I try to understand everything before I understand the basics; therefore this makes it more difficult for me to put everything into context. The fact that I struggle to adapt my learning styles isnt my only weakness, by doing a skills audit I have discovered other areas of learning where I am weak. My weakest area in the skills audit is spoken communication. This includes things such as speaking in front of a group, expressing my views verbally and delivering a presentation. I feel the reason why I am weak in this area is because I dont like being the centre of attention and when I am I become very self conscious and nervous. I am fine when talking one-to-one but when it comes to talking in front of large groups I am not comfortable at all. This needs to be improved though because it is an important skill in any industry. My Strategy for effective learning is? The first step to make my learning more effective is by identifying my weaknesses. I feel that I have done this successfully by doing the online test and by completing the skills audit. The next step is to come up with a strategy to improve my weaknesses and make the most of my strength. I am aware that my spoken communication skills will improve with practice and by using stress management techniques when I am giving presentations, talks etc. but, trying to make my learning styles more balanced may be more difficult. To improve my reflective side of learning I could take time after lectures to read through my notes again and do further reading on a topic but I could also relate the things that I have learnt in the lecture to a practical situation and therefore learn it the way that best suits me. The way in which I could improve my verbal way of learning is by getting somebody to talk through a diagram, graph etc whist Im looking at it. This will allow me to recognise the information verbally as well as visually because I will be relating what the tutor is saying to something that I can understand easier. Finally the way in which I can become more of a sequential learner is by taking topics step by step and try to forget about the overall picture until I have gat all of the pieces. This will help me because it will stop me from getting confused if I stop thinking about things that arent important in the early stages. With all of these things it may be better for me to adapt what is being taught to me and fit it into my preferred learning style, rather than adapt my preferred learning style to fit in with the material that is being taught. If I do things this way I am always going to learn things in my preferred way but realistically I know this isnt always a possibility and therefore I am aware of the need to become a more effective learner.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Antenna Systems For Radar Applications Information Technology Essay

Antenna Systems For Radar Applications Information Technology Essay The project will examine a variety of beam forming techniques which can be used in order to make radar electronic beam steering feasible. Commonly used mechanical rotating antennas for a 360 degrees views coverage are difficult to operate and expensive to implement. Thus, electronic beam forming is an attractive solution. This report is mostly interested in radar applications performing in 24 GHz frequencies, which can be used by car industries, in order to avoid obstacles on the road, for example, or security radars, covering 360 degrees views. Radar 2.1. Radar Definition Radar means radio detection and ranging, determining thus the original and still significant application of radar. The main reason for using radar is to estimate certain characteristics, such as the position, motion and presence of the specific surroundings in which the user is interested. Radar is actually a sensor which transmits electromagnetic energy into the surroundings and detects energy which is reflected by objects. If a directive antenna transmits electromagnetic energy through a narrow beam it is easy to predict the bearing of an object because of the energy reflected of it. The time needed for the transmission and reception of the energy represents the distance between the radar and the object. [21] Kinds of Radar There is a great variety of radars. Some radars provide navigation aid and safety on small boats and their size might be less than 15cm. Others are widely used by the police in order to measure the speed of the vehicles. Moreover, there are some radars so large as to cover many kilometers of land, long arrays of antennas and they all work together in order to supervise the flight of astronomical bodies or space vehicles. In addition, there are many radars at airport, with a more common size and rotating antennas. Finally, there are several radars, more complex, for mobile use. [21] Radars can be classified in many categories. As much as the waveforms are concerned, radars can be classified in 2 categories, they can be either Continuous Wave (CW) or Pulsed Radars (PR). CW radars use different antennas for transmission and receiving, and they emit electromagnetic energy continuously. Unmodulated CW radars precisely determine the target radial velocity and angular position, while information about the target range have to use some form of modulation in order to be gathered. In order to search and track target velocity, primarily unmodulated CW radars are used. Pulse Radars (PR) use a series of pulsed waveforms, mostly with modulation and can be separated based on the Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) in 3 categories, high, medium and low PRF radars. CW and PR radars are both able to determine target range and velocity by using different forms of modulation. [23] Continuous Wave Radar (CW) CW radar sets continuously transmit a high-frequency signal. Then, the received signal is permanently processed. In such a system, two problems have to be solved: avoid a direct connection between the transmitted and received energy (feedback connection), conduct the received echoes into a time system capable of doing run time measurements. A feedback connection can be prevented by: spatial separation   between the transmitting and receiving antenna frequency dependent separation  by the  Doppler-frequency  during the measurement of speeds. [4] Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave Radar (FMCW) CW radars are not capable of measuring distance, because the timing mark necessary lacks, preventing thus the system to time precisely the transmit and receive cycle and exchange the measured round-trip-time into range. This problem can be solved by using phase or frequency shifting techniques. As far as the frequency shifting method is concerned, a signal is used, which continuously changes in frequency around a specific reference, in order to identify stationary objects and measure the range. In order to achieve an up-and-down or a sawtooth-like alternation in frequency, Frequency-Modulated  Continuous  Wave radars (FMCW) are used, changing the frequency in a linear fashion. By constantly changing the frequency, there will be a difference between the frequency of the echo signal and the one transmitted. Thus, the difference  transmitters frequency shift will be relative to round trip time  and so the range  of the target too. The frequencies can be examined, when a reflec tion is received, and by comparing the received echo with the actual step of transmitted frequency, a range calculation like using pulses can be done. Consequently, the range of the stationary objective is given by comparing the transmitted and received frequencies. It is difficult to make a broadcaster able to send out random frequencies cleanly, and as an alternative, this frequency-modulated continuous-wave radar, use an easily changeable ramp of frequencies up and down. If the frequency modification is linearly over a broad area, by making a comparison among frequencies within this region, the distance can be easily determined. It is possible to measure only the complete value of the difference and thus, the results with increasing frequency modification signify a decreasing frequency change at a static scenario. [4] Characteristics e of FMCW radar: measuring the distance is potential by comparing the definite frequency of the received signal to a given reference (regularly direct the transmitted signal) the time required for transmitting a signal as longer than the duration of the measurement of the installed maximum range of the radar [4] By selecting the appropriate frequency deviation per time unit, the radar resolution can be different, and choosing the frequency shift duration, the maximum range can be varied. For instance, if the linear frequency of radar increases over 1  ms duration, the time-limited maximum range might be 150  km. If the maximum frequency deviation is 65 MHz, then stay about 433 Hz per meter for the filter for analysis. It is important that the amount of frequency modulation is considerably greater than the estimated Doppler shift otherwise, the outcome will be affected. The most common and easy way to modulate the wave is by linearly increasing the frequency. In this way, the transmitted frequency will change at a continuous rate. If a single antenna is used, a ferrite circulator has to separate the transmit and receive. However, using to different antennas, one for transmission and one for reception, is easier and cheaper to perform. On a ordinary substrate transmitting and receiving ant enna are placed exactly above each other as an antenna array. The direction of the linear  polarization  is rotated against each other by 180  degrees. An extra shielding plate reduced a direct cross talk (i.e. a direct coupling of both antennas) usually. From this direct coupling, arises a signal, which is suppressed due to the same frequency, since the measurement is performed to as a frequency difference between transmit and receive signal. [4] Radar Beamforming In order to create a beam with the appropriate and desired characteristics, radar beamforming, which combines signals from a set of sources, is essential. As much as an RF antenna system is concerned, each source may be a single array element or a subarray. A steerable beam is able to control the combination process electronically. Moreover, it can be replicated so as to create various independent beams, limited by hardware difficulty, complication and losses. [22] 3.1. Analog Beamforming A feed system is a network used in order to connect the antenna input to its radiators. The main reason for using such a system is to transmit power to the elements or collect signal from them. (transmit mode, or receive mode). While being on transmit or receiving mode, the required phase and amplitude excitations needed for the radiation performance must be maintained. The feed network is able to scan the beam, select among different antenna beam shapes and communicate with active sectors, by containing several switches and other devices, appropriate to execute such processes. Moreover, the feed network may contain amplifiers and other active devices. There are also many new developments, such as Switch matrix systems, Butler matrix feed systems and Vector transfer matrix systems, but the most significant are the RF lens feed systems. [1] 3.1.1. RF Lens One of the biggest problems when using a transmission line feed network is that amount of losses. Therefore, systems which are based on RF/optical principles are preferred. There is a large variety of RF Lens and many RF/optical feed systems also incorporate different types of beam scanning functions. RF refractive lenses are similar to their classical optical counterparts, which function by using the refraction amongst different materials. When using constrained lenses, the waves are forced to follow some specific paths, like in a geodesic lens. Another type of lens is the bootlace lens which in which the signals between the input surface and the output surface are routed on transmission lines. Occasionally, a conformal array feed uses different combinations of lens types, or lenses and matrices. Small array antenna elements are used by an RF lens as input/output probes that couple to the lens region. These probes exist in an array environment which is characterized by reflections a nd mutual coupling and the associated design problems. In particular in circular lens designs, there can also be standing waves caused by reflections from the opposite side of the lens. Another problem is the variation of the element phase center with frequency. [1] Rotman Lens A Rotman lens is a parallel-plate structure used as the beam forming network (BFN) for a linear array of radiating antenna elements. It is easy to form a beam forming network suitable for use with a planar array, by stacking numerous lenses. Rotman lenses are preferred because of the advantages that they offer, such as ease of manufacture, light weight, low cost, monolithic construction and availability of many beams at the same time. Rotman lens is capable of extremely wide-band operation, because it is a true time-delay device which produces frequency-independent beam steering. Because of these characteristic, Rotman lens is a possible candidate for use in multi-beam satellite-based applications. [2] The electrical area that a Rotman lens occupies is very large (usually hundreds of square wavelengths) and because of this, an entirely precise analysis is not possible. The planar circuit approximation applies to structures which are electrically thin in one dimension, like parallel-plate lenses. The effort required for their analysis is reduced to that of solving a (line) integral equation for the relationship between the RF voltage and current at the periphery of the structure. [2] The R-2R Lens The R-2R lens feed (Figure 1) has feed ports on the perimeter of a parallel-plate lens with radius R, in order to illuminate the output ports on the opposite side of the lens. These output ports are linked to the element ports on the 2R radius circular array with cables of equal length. The number of feeding ports is half the number of element ports. This type of arrangement allows all feed points to be ideally focused, resulting in a plane-phase front. In order to scan the antenna beam at angle ÃŽÂ ¦, the feed point has to be moved an angle 2ÃŽÂ ¦. One illumination taper can be achieved, by combining three to four adjacent feed ports, resulting in lowered sidelobes. [1] Figure1: The R-2R lens feed system [1] It is essential to add several switches on the lens ports, in order to scan the beam. One has to be allowed to use numerous beam ports at the same time in order to achieve a multiple beam generation. This problem could be solved by using half the lens for beam ports and connect the other half to a 90 ° arc array. R-2R lens are considered to be a special case of the Rotman lens, which is typically used for linear array feeds. Furthermore, for circular arcs up to 90 °, the Rotman lens can be used. Actually, the curvature does not have to be circular, as the design in general, curvature of lens input and output lines, cable lengths, and so on can be optimized together with the array shape. It is possible to achieve ideal focusing in the Rotman lens only for three beam directions. [1] The R-kR Lens The R-kR lens feed system has as much ports on the lens as there are radiators on the circular array. In order to cover 360 ° views, the lens ports have to be used more than once, both as feeding points and for connecting to the radiating elements. In order to achieve this, switches are used, circulators (Figure 2), or two lenses at the same time. The radiators placed on radius R are connected by cables of the same length to the ports of the circular lens with radius kR. When k is about 1.9, a planar phase front for rays within a sector of about 120 ° is obtained. This shows that the lens is nearly two times the size of the circular array, thus, it cant fit inside the circular array if it is not filled with a dielectric with permittivity more than 4. If broadband radiators are used, the R-kR lens-fed circular array can be very broadband. The bandwidth could be limited by using switches or circulators. The phase center of the radiators is a design parameter of critical importance and must be located on the design radius R. [1] Figure 2: The R-kR lens, here with circulators. [1] In order to limit the focusing performance, several types of element have a phase center which is able to change position with frequency. [1] Mode-Controlled Lenses A radial transmission line which forms a circular parallel-plate lens is possible to act like a circular array feed. If it is excited by several probes placed close to the center, the modes generated will direct the energy toward a part of the lens periphery. Therefore, by controlling the modes using phase shifters or a hybrid network connected to the input probes commutates the excitation. Then it is easy to connect these pick-up probes to the radiating elements, via additional phase shifters if needed. [1] Luneburg lenses In order to achieve wide angle scanning, the Luneburg lens, is the appropriate and desired device. As far as land mobile operations are concerned, an antenna able to scan in a two-dimensional (2D) plane is required, particularly if the scan angle is large. The Luneburg Lenses are used in order to provide single or multiple mechanically scanned beams, at microwave frequencies. Nevertheless, because of the advent of phased arrays the lenses are now usually used for radar applications as a wide angle passive reflector. This is why nowadays there are appropriate lens configurations which can be established by permitting the inclusion of controllable dielectric material into a Luneburg Lens so as to make the lens suitable for electronic scanning at 24 Ghz. [1] Digital Beamforming When performing beamforming in the digital area, it is called digital beamforming. The realization can demand huge volumes of digital information to be processed at extremely high rates, but current improvements in processing hardware have made Digital Beamforming a useful alternative to RF combining in many ways. Moreover, it has allowed the formation of systems which were not practical with legacy technologies. Below are presented the benefits of Digital Beamforming. [22] Simplicity of hardware If the RF and analog hardware becomes a minimal device, collecting data, it would be an ideal case. Then, all the difficult and complicated process of the signal is done in firmware, which is a more flexible and gainful way of processing comparing to RF plumbing. In addition, it is possible that the overall size of the system, as long as its weight, will be reduced a lot, and this is particularly significant in airborne systems. [22 Replication Digital beamforming is the best option when many independent beams are needed. By using digital beamforming, it is easy to form each beam completely digitally, without any analog or RF hardware further required. The quantity of beams like these is then partially limited by power, speed and synchronization of the processing elements, which become even more cost-effective and flexible each year. [22] Scanning and Tracking It is not possible to steer electronically each beam (e.g., to track a moving source). However, by using the precisely same stream of digital samples from each antenna element, it is potential to turn each independent beam to a different source. Thus, it is easy to reduce extremely difficult receiver scenarios to firmware buildings blocks which are now usual. [22] Flexibility These digital systems can be adapted without any difficulty to varying requirements, such as multipath combination, application bandwidth, tracking requirements or interference rejection. A SMOP (Simple Matter of Programming) is able to perform numerous adaptations. [22] Radar An array antenna which is a low Cost Transmit/Receive one provides agile beams to track multiple targets at the same time. [22] Anything that can be done by using an analog beam forming can easily be done digitally too. Choosing to do everything digitally might lead to several difficulties because of the extreme requirements on data transmission, storage, and signal processing. However, nowadays such problems are easily solved because of the rapid growth of computer power, either software or hardware. When using an analog reception beam forming, the element signals are combined with weights determined by feed networks and/or phase and amplitude controlled receiver modules. In digital computer, it is possible to do the same operations on the element signals just by converting analog signals to digital ones. Thus, the formation of many receive beams can take place at the same time, without feed losses, which are common when using analog systems. Moreover, the element modules in the digital systems have low noise amplifiers (LNA) preceding the analog-to-digital conversion. A lossless beam forming is created as t he LNAs set the signal-to noise ratio, so that it is not affected by transmission losses. The advantages of a digital beam forming in this case are not so obvious. After the transmission of the beam, it is not possible to change the beam shape or to perform any other signal processing. Nevertheless, digital synthesis of the transmitted waveform on the element level combined with DBF on reception can offer remarkable system capabilities in terms of, for example, LPI (low probability of intercept) radar with jamming resistance. A wide transmission beam illuminating the area of interest and multiple, narrow, digitally formed receive beams has also been suggested for LPI systems-ubiquitous radar and OLPI radar (Omnidirectional LPI). There are many aspects which can best be performed digitally, such as the need for amplitude and phase control, polarization control, switching of the active sector, compensating for element patterns in the beam steering algorithms and calibration. A DBF ant enna system has a combination of numerous subsystems and components. Receiver channel imbalance, , A/D converter offset errors, amplitude and phase errors and frequency dependent errors are some of the possible imperfections in these subsystems and component which can influence the performance of the overall system. The type and requirements of each processing used influence the importance of such imperfections. Usually, array calibration and special error correction schemes are included in the antenna system design. [1] 3.3. Beamforming Transmitter Architectures Several beamforming transmitter architectures exist, suitable for integrated circuit implementation as well as many well-known topologies for separate implementations of phased array transmitters. The goal is topologies appropriate for performance in consumer products at 24 GHz. Electrical beamforming is achievable if the phase of the signal to each antenna element in the array is separately set. Moreover, a larger number of patterns can be achieved and the sidelobe level can be reduced compared to uniform power distribution if the power to each antenna element is set individually. [3] 3.3.1. Baseband Phase Shifting In the baseband phase shifting architecture the phases and amplitudes of the signals are created in the digital baseband. The phase control is very accurate, but the architecture demands an entire signal path between the baseband and the antenna for each element (Figure 3). Also, the architecture can be called digital array, because the beamforming is being performed in the digital domain. Such an architecture lead in a large hardware cost and power spending because there are many signal paths, but also in big flexibility. As a result, this architecture is perhaps very complex for radar at 24 GHz. In order to transmit individual information in various directions, in MIMO systems (multiple input multiple output), the flexibility of the architecture with parallel paths is available too. [3] Figure 3: Transmitter architecture for baseband phase shifting [3] 3.3.2 Local Oscillator Phase Shifting Phase shifting can occur in the LO path as well (Figure 4) Moreover, it is likely to use phase shifters in the signal path, at IF or RF. Whether performing the phase shift at LO or RF or place them at different places, the same amount of hardware is achievable. If they are placed in the LO path, amplitude variation among dissimilar phase settings is less significant if the mixers are driven hard. In this way, amplitude variation in the LO path will not influence the signal path a lot. Thus, it is easier to implement the phase shift in the LO path. [3] Figure 4: Transmitter architecture for phase shifting in the local oscillator path, polar modulation [3] 3.3.3. Offset Local Oscillator Phase Shifting If the power amplifier and local oscillator are used at the same frequency, injection pulling is possible to occur. It might not be easy to accomplish a sufficient isolation so as to avoid the corruption of the oscillator signal by the PA. To moderate this on an architectural level, offset LO phase shifting may be used as shown in Figure 5. Beamforming transmitters have applications like radar (24 GHz and 77 GHz) and WLAN (60 GHz) which are placed at high frequencies. It is valuable to use the lowest frequencies possible on the chip, and multiply the frequency close to the PA. A reduced VCO frequency makes allows a wider tuning range, and the increasing MOS varactor quality factor. [3] Figure 5: Offset local oscillator phase shifting for beamforming transmitter [3] 3.3.4. Ring Oscillator Based Phase Shifting A ring oscillator which has a tunable phase shift among the oscillating elements is used in such architecture (Figure 6). The tuned oscillators in the ring are separately detuned from their center frequency. The LC-loads is capable of sustaining up to +-90 degrees phase shift. It is important that the phase shift around the ring is constantly equal to 360 degrees, or a multiple thereof. The phase shift among consecutive elements is zero degrees if each oscillating element is non-inverting, and no excess phase shift is introduced in the loop. By putting an excess phase shift of KÃŽÂ ´ degrees it will have as a result a phase shift of ÃŽÂ ´ degrees in each of the equal K oscillators in the loop. [3] Figure 6: Transmitter architecture for variable phase ring oscillator in a phase locked loop [3] 3.3.5. Radio Frequency Phase Shifting The phase shifting which is the most hardware efficient, including numeral building blocks, is to carry it out just before the power amplifier. The power amplifiers are the only circuit components that have to be duplicated (Figure 7). The disadvantage is that the phase shifting is being performed at the highest frequency and signal level in the system. When an envelope modulation scheme is used, the linearity of the phase shifters may be a problem while noise is not as significant when the power level is high. It might be useful to implement the phase shifters at the highest frequency. If transmission lines are used as separate phase shifters, they become shorter with frequency. This is an ordinary architecture in radar systems. Several fixed phase shifts are in that case implemented and switches controlled by selection logic determine the phase shift. Certainly, the transmission lines are linear and thus, these phase shifters can easily be used in envelope modulated systems. Moreover, the delay is stable over a wide bandwidth. A set of fixed phase shifts is then implemented and switches controlled by a selection logic choses the phase shift. Of course the transmission lines are linear so these phase shifters can very well be used in envelope modulated systems. Another advantage is that the delay is constant over a wide bandwidth. [3] Figure 7: Transmitter architecture for phase shifting in the radio frequency path. [3] Applications for 24GHz Radar Sensors Modular 24 GHz Radar Sensor for Digital Beamforming on Transmit and Receive In order to increase the angular resolution, numerous switched transmitters are preferred, as they need less hardware effort. The FMCW radar sensor is the best solution, providing up to eight transmitters, switchable ones, and eight receiving channels which provide parallel receiving, and they all allow digital beadforming. An innovative switching technique via switchable amplifiers is preferred. [5] Four Channel 24-GHz FMCW Radar Sensor with Two-Dimensional Target Localization Capabilities Results on the angular measurements are improved when using an FMCW radar sensor, compared to standard beamforming methods, as far as the target localization is concerned. Furthermore, the determination of other characteristics required will be allowed, such as the range or velocity. [6] . 24-GHz Automotive Radar Transmitter with Digital Beam Steering in 130-nm CMOS (Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) Many Pas are connected to different antenna elements so as to control the steering of the beam. The output phases of the PAs are controlled separately through 360 degrees by binary weighting of quadrature phases. The circuit has 18 PAs,and each one of them delivers 0 dBm to the antenna, ensuring an output power of 13 dBm. The antenna array, which is constituted of 18 elements, will be 11 cm at 24 GHz and will have 12 dB directivity and a half power beam width of 5 degrees. [7] Design and Performance of a 24-GHz Switch-Antenna Array FMCW Radar System One transmitter, one transmitting antenna, four receiving antennas, one receiving channel and an SP4T switch (single-pole four-throw) are the elements which compose a 24-GHz FMCW radar system. In order to increase the inter-connection loss and create a compact whole size, radio-frequency (RF) and intermediate-frequency (IF) circuits are integrated in the antennas. The receiving antennas are sporadically switched to the receiving channel. Beamforming methods are used in order to evaluate the performance of such a developed system, by estimating the angle, velocity and range. [8] Imaging Radar Sensor Front-End with a Large Transmit Array Automotive applications need medium range imaging radars, such as the 24 GHz imaging radar front-end. In this radar, a large switched transmit antenna array is combined with a coherent FM-CW architecture. It permits two dimensional electronic scanning in range and cross range with excellent crass range resolution over a wide angle of new using very low EIRP. The advantage of using such radar is that it requires just a small number of active millimeter wave components. [9] Novel Photonic Rotman-Lens Design for Radar Phased Array Antennas A new microwave photonic implementation of a Rotman-lens is proposed in this project, providing superior performance and functionality. The scanning unit presented is an optical element, where photo-detectors attached to the transmitting/receiving antennas are the interfaces, doing conversions among the RF signals and their particular optical waves. Actually, the optical module is a photonic Rotman lens, designed like its RF complement. Despite the advance of practicing the solution in a photonic module, the recommended photonic Rotman lens superior design is able to realise a linear phase profile with a varied slope at the output of the lens for any potential spot at the input to the lens. This is contrary to what is presently accessible with the usual RF Rotman lens, where output phase front linearity is achieved for a small quantity of input spots. A better performance is achieved by increasing the curves of the photonic input and output surfaces of the lens, having an off-centere d elliptical profile, and not the typically used spherical curvatures. [10] Virtual Antenna Beamforming (VAB) for Radar Systems by Using Orthogonal Coding Waveforms An original way of creating virtual transmitting and receiving radar antenna beams at the same time is to use orthogonal coding waveforms from the antenna elements and deal out digitally their echoes at the receiver. Many virtual transmitting-receiving radar antenna beams can be produced at the same time by using the same quantity of beamforming filters with no any increase on the transmitted power or antenna gain or resolution loss. Both virtually formed antenna beams and common phased arrays of equal size are able to achieve the same antenna gains and spatial resolutions. Since the antenna radiation pattern can be completed almost isotropic, the original system has low probability of intercept (LPI) property. While the transmitting and receiving beams are both virtually implemented through digital filtering, expensive radiation phase shift used in phased arrays is unnecessary for beam scanning in this actual system. [11] Compact Two-Layer Rotman Lens-Fed Microstrip Antenna Array at 24 GHz A new way of realizing a compact Rotman lens-fed antenna array is presented in this paper. The lens-fed antenna has the construction of two layers, which is an original option of reducing the Rotman lens size. This is performed at 24 GHz approaching automotive sensing radar. The lens has a metal layer on the top, a dielectric, a regular ground, a dielectric, and a metal layer on the bottom, in sequential order. The antennas are put on the top layer, while the layout of the lens body is positioned on the bottom layer. They are both connected electrically via slot transitions. This structure, composed of two layers, offers many advantages, because it reduces the entire size of the lens, as well as the total loss of the delay lines, as the lines can be as short and straight as possible. This two-layer Rotman lens-fed antenna array is evaluated in terms of scattering parameters and beam patterns. [12] Cylindrical arrays with electronic beam scanning In order to provide a continuously 360 degrees scan by the directional pattern of a cylindrical array using electronic means, there are several methods proposed. It is important that the circular aperture distribution related to the far-field directional pattern is subjected to rotation comparative to the fixed array. With the intention of synthesizing appropriate forms of directional pattern, there are various techniques describing the independent control of the amplitude and phase of the aperture distributio